Secciones: Ciencia - Rusia, URSS, Centenario Revolución SoviéticaTítulo: Interview: Roscosmos Director for Science Alexander Bloshenko on Big Bang, life on Mars and other space questions- Enlace 1 Texto del artículo:
Roscosmos Director for Science Alexander Bloshenko on Big Bang, life on Mars and other space questions
May 12, 2020, 06:00 GMT
Space continues raising more and more questions to the humanity with many of them yet remaining unanswered. The Universe has phenomena that people might be unable to explain. Black hole is one of such examples, with its gravity powerful enough to capture even light — making it impossible to see what it looks like using known physical principles.
TASS news agency offered Roscosmos to comment on those tricky space questions both common public and scientists face, using the latest knowledge available. Is there life on Mars? Is it possible to overcome the speed of light? Where is the edge of the Universe and how fast can one reach it? What is inside a black hole? Is nonorganic life possible — these and other topics were touched upon in an interview with Roscosmos Executive Director for Science and Perspective Programs Alexander Bloshenko.
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— Mr. Bloshenko, a person is asking one and the same question again and again — a naïve but at the same time fundamental — what was before the Big Bang happened? What exactly went ‘bang’?
— The question is truly a fundamental one, but nevertheless very interesting. The current cosmological theory suggests that prior to its expansion, the Big Bang itself, the Universe was in a kind of unstable and tense state, the whole space was literally located in one point. Theoretical physics says that it was in the so-called singularity with an immense index of matter density and space-time curvature. Then it began expanding very quickly, went bang.
The most wide-spread suggestions say this singularity emerged as a result of a supermassive object collapse. One could say that the birth of our Universe is the result of the death of a Universe that existed before — and that is even mirrored by some religions, the so-called ‘cycle of life’.
This theory is confirmed by the relic radiation and the so-called red shift showing that the galaxies in our Universe are drifting away from each other.
— This triggers a logical question — is our Universe finite? What is beyond its boundaries?
— It is difficult to make a scientifically grounded conclusion about the finiteness of the Universe and its dimensions, as the current level of technology is limited, also there are nuances in cognizing the scales of the question. Trying to estimate the Universe dimensions through analyzing the red shift (decrease of radiation frequency rate as a result of increasing distance), we will face the fact that the light registered now had been emitted billions of years ago. In other words, we are now receiving the information about the state and location of an object only in that ancient moment of time making the correct conclusion on the Universe dimensions impossible.
However, it is possible to estimate the Universe dimensions exploring the relic radiation — microwave radiation emitted by cooling down plasma, its clot is supposed to form our Universe. These calculations place the edge of our Universe 46 billion light years away from the Earth. However, this is also not the case we might say we ‘found’ the edge: miscalculations and the distance to the registered objects interfere, as well as the fact that the speed of the Universe boundaries expansion increases progressively as the distance from Earth grows and at some point, we become unable to receive the signal from them. One might say, the objects at the boundaries of our Universe are so far away that the signal won’t make it back to us within the lifespan of our Solar system.
However, if we pose that our Universe expands, we mean a kind of event horizon separating our Universe from the beyond. Thus, theoretically, the Universe is finite, but considering its dimensions, expansion and human capabilities this in fact might be disregarded. Abnormally cold spots registered in the relic radiation map might be interpreted as the areas where our Universe touches other universes — making it possible to speak about the existance of a Multiverse.
— What is dark matter and dark energy? How can we get closer to studying these phenomena?
— Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter not involved in electromagnetic interaction thus being inaccessible for direct supervision. Its existance is not yet an authentic fact. Dark energy has been introduced into the mathematical model of the Universe to explain its accelerating expansion observed. According to the latest research, theoretically the observed Universe consists of about 25% dark matter, about 70% dark energy and just 5% of common matter forming the stars and other visible space objects.
There are two methods of searching dark matter particles: direct and indirect. The direct method has not yet produced any results, while indirect confirmations of dark matter existance were obtained also during the known electromagnetic spectrometer experiment aboard the International Space Station.
— Another fundamental question for us today if life on Earth appeared by chance or can we say there were conditions for it to appear?
Yes, the conditions of the form of life known to us to exist on Earth were absolutely unique. This includes the Solar system location in the area of our Galaxy without active star formation as well as beneficial Sun orbit positioning viewed from the Galaxy plane as far as asteroid and comet danger is concerned, solar radiation stability, location of our planet in the Solar system and other factors. That’s why one might think the conditions were specially prepared so that life could exist on our planet. On the other hand, the Universe is huge with loads of galaxies, star systems and planets inside those systems — so the possibility that similar conditions might have emerged by chance at some other planet of our Universe without any special preparation. The thing is that we don’t have any data about the systems similar to the one we live in.
— How did the organic life on Earth emerge from non-organic?
— Life on Earth appeared very long ago — the first remains of life forms, microorganisms were found in layers being 3.5-3.8 billion years old. We are yet unable to say how these first life forms appeared, however we have a well-shaped concept of how it developed.
The primitive atmosphere of our planet accumulated gases during the volcanic processes forming Earth crust: carbon oxides, ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide and many others. With Earth cooling down, water reservoirs formed. Under the influence of frequent and powerful electric lightning discharges, strong ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, as well as volcanic activity paired with radioactive compound spews, protozoa formed. Getting into the water and concentrating there they formed the dense primordial soup with more and more complex compounds developing.
At the same time, it is generally thought that the very first life forms (prebiological, meaning chemical) were molecules capable of reproducing using themselves as the sample, matrix. This ancient primitive molecule could be ribonucleic acid or another organic polymer, similar in structure and properties.
With that in mind one might reply in the affirmative to the question of existance of non-organic life. Under certain conditions, non-organic compounds are capable of behaving like organic cells. A number of experiments showed complex processes with large molecules building structures resembling life.
— Are there any data, whether life beyond Earth is possible?
— Active research on extraterrestrial life signs have been conducted since the middle of XX century. This includes both existing and extinct extraterrestrial life as well as a more targeted search for sapient life.
When examining carbon-containing meteorites, the scientists discover substances that are the products of vital activity on Earth. These are ‘organized elements’ — microscopic single-cell formations 5-50 micron in size often having clearly visible double walls, pores, thorns, etc. It is not yet explicitly proven if these fossils belong to the remains of some extraterrestrial life. On the other hand, these formations are so highly organized that is generally believed to be life.
Discovering planets near other star systems in the ‘habitable zone’ implies that there are places in the Universe favorable for abiogenesis. Current astronomy capabilities won’t allow estimating specific life conditions on such planets, but if in the future we are able to precisely estimate, say, the level of oxygen in their atmosphere, this will be an important evidence in favour of life existance beyond Earth.
— Are there any facts that might even indirectly confirm the existance of other civilizations? And what is the probability of highly organized life like ours existing somewhere in space?
— We don’t have any information about highly organized extraterrestrial life, unfortunately. However, to reiterate, the existance of life on Earth allows assuming that the same conditions could have occurred on other planets.
Currently, there are about 4,000 exoplanets known nearby other stars. However, only the visible part of the Universe houses more than a trillion of galaxies, each of them in turn possibly housing trillions of planets — and the possibility of life similar to ours present on some of them is quite high.
I would like to note that the conditions of extraterrestrial life must not be absolutely equal to those on Earth. Even here we have organisms less sensitive to temperature changes and radiation exposure. This was confirmed by experiments including those conducted in outer space.
— Are there possible examples of artificial signals from other stars that might have been sent by other sapient creatures?
— As of today we have no signals registered coming from the Universe, but we can’t be sure that the Universe is certainly silent. It is absolutely possible that some kind of signals do go through the Earth, based on non-classi? principles yet unknown to us.
— Are there any realistic methods to move in space at high speed that will allow getting to other stars at least within a human life?
— Unfortunately, the current level of technological development absolutely won’t allow interstellar travels of a human being. On the other hand, 150 years ago nobody could imagine that humans would regularly travel into space — I insist, there was even no theoretical basis of a possibility to fly beyond our planet. That is why the question of interstellar flights might be solved within our lifetime.
— Is it possible to overcome the speed of light? What physical principals might be employed to create speedy intergalactic travels?
— Currently, there is no theoretical nor practical proof that any material object can move faster than the speed of light in vacuum. This is one of the basic postulates stemming from the special Einstein theory of relativity, which is the basis of our vision of the world surrounding us.
As of now, the maximum speed achieved by humans equals thousandth of percent of the speed of light. What is clear that we will need completely different approaches in movement and its understanding to achieve speed close to the speed of light. Under the new conditions the movement might change over to some kind of different way than it is now, some other dimension, possibly cancelling the current space movement limitations. However, completely new limitations may arise to be solved by future generations of explorers. Let’s presume that by the moment humanity objectively needs these kind of travels, the way would be found.
If we don’t talk about travelling with the speed close to the speed of light, the question of increasing the speed of moving in space might be solved by developing engines based on new physical principles. However, as of now all the attempts in this sphere including the sensational EmDrive have shown no results beyond an experimental error.
— What are black holes? Is any even hypothetic way to get information from a black hole?
— The most understandable and wide-spread description of a black hole implies a colossal mass compressed to a huge density into a small radius called the Schwarzschild radius, or the gravitational radius depending on the mass of an object. For example, the Earth-like mass object has the Schwarzschild radius of only 9 mm, this is the size our planet needs to be compressed to become a black hole.
The Sun’s radius is about 3 km. At the end of its life our Sun will turn into a white dwarf, a small object the size of the Earth consisting of pure carbon. After it cools down, its surface will be covered by grime and graphite with pure diamond inside weighing trillions of trillions carats. The stars two times heavier than the Sun when dying with a supernova explosion turn into either neutron star or black holes.
The defining property of a black hole is its event horizon meaning the area around it. This is its gravity border with nothing being able to escape from it, even light. Thus it is impossible to transmit signal from inside the event horizon and send the information to the outside. That is why all the events inside a black hole can be described only theoretically, while the black hole physics itself has lots of unsolved problems. And currently we don’t know even a theoretical method to receive information from inside the event horizon meaning that we are unable to learn precisely what is going on inside a black hole.
— What are wormholes? Can they be used for travelling around the Universe?
— Modern physics employs the space-and-time notion, a physical model with three spatial dimensions complemented by a fully-fledged fourth dimension — time. Viewed from the general relativity theory, space-and-time have common nature while its interaction with other physical objects (fields and objects) is gravity itself.
Wormholes are assumed to be thin space-and-time tubes connecting faraway areas of the Universe. Unlike black holes, wormholes have no event horizon and they have both ‘entrance’ and ‘exit’. Wormhole existance doesn’t contradict the general relativity theory.
As of now, neither possibility nor impossibility of wormhole existance were proven. According to the existing theories, wormholes can solve not only the question of intergalactic travelling but also give an opportunity of time travelling: getting into such a space-and-time area heavily curved by the huge gravity source one might theoretically perform a ‘jump’ in space and time as well.
— Maybe the widely discussed string theory is the key to answer all these questions? Can it be confirmed or confuted using astrophysical research?
— Without going into abstract details that are too difficult to understand, I will try to answer in understandable terms. Unlike the world’s model description we all got used to since school, with lots of elementary particles and waves, string theory suggests it to be described using a set of endless lengthy objects capable to fluctuate like strings do. This theory combines quantum mechanics and relativity theory as well.
Gabriele Veneziano, the founder of string theory has shown the way the Universe inflation model can be formed via the superstring theory. In 1996 an important theoretical work was published that involved string theory to find microscopic components of certain class black holes, as well as precise calculation of the input these components make to the entropy.
The string theory includes the ‘space strings’ notion, that can inflate to a great extent and go beyond the event horizon, meaning they will exceed the size of the Universe.
Today string theory requires experimental check, however none of its variants give exact predictions that can be tested in a critical experiment. Thus, this theory is yet in its infancy: it possesses a lot of attractive mathematical capabilities and may become of high importance in understanding the structure of the Universe, but it needs further development to be confirmed or refuted.
For now, string theory cannot be checked in the near future because of technological limitations. If any research, not only astrophysical can help to confirm or refute such model tending to be the key theory to describe all the processes in the Universe, these research will play a major part. Possibly, with the new technologies’ development we will get new opportunities that in turn will provide additional input here as well.
— SpaceX head Elon Musk insists on colonizing Mars. How realistic is that?
— Colonizing space is a question of human survival, as well as every living thing on this planet — one way or another when speaking about a very-long-term perspective. However, we should mention that the process of colonization will be most likely done by creatures with another genotype.
SpaceX plans and current achievements are undoubtedly worthy of deep respect. One should however remember that Elon Musk is a businessman with his business not only in rocket and space equipment much depends on the greater public attention. That is why it is highly important for him to set eye-catching ambitious goals for the nearest perspective. The first SpaceX rocket performed its successful launch almost five times later than the terms set initially. The same goes about some plans voiced by SpaceX — after a short technical analysis they turn out to be simply impossible to implement under the level of technological development in the nearest future. For example, one of SpaceX ideas is about a thermonuclear bomb explosion on Mars pole — to get a meaningful result, more than 10,000 launches of the heaviest rockets being developed now are required.
Keeping in mind existing and perspective launch vehicles and even allowing a hefty dose of optimism while estimating them and without considering the possibilities to create such volumes of thermonuclear weapons it turns out that in the nearest future humans won’t be able to influence the climate conditions on Mars (and Venus as well, by the way).
Roscosmos cannot take the liberty to declare any timescales based on pure marketing and PR. Nevertheless, today we do conduct systematic works to prepare missions to the Moon and Mars.
— What planets of the Solar system are the best candidates for colonization?
— Speaking about the Solar system, in many ways Mars and Venus resemble Earth the most. Like Earth, they both are located in the so-called ‘habitable zone’. There are assumptions that throughout its history Mars once had an Earth-like environment with dense atmosphere and lots of water both lost during a period of several hundred million years. Due to its similarity and proximity to Earth, Mars may turn out to be more practicable and effective planet for terraforming among all the objects in the Solar system.
Venus has extremely unfavorable conditions for humans. Because of a strong greenhouse effect the median temperature on Venus’ surface is even higher than that on Mercury which is closer to the Sun: +470 degrees Celsius (with Mars having ?63 degrees Celsius). Venus atmospheric pressure is 90 times greater than the Earth — comparable to the pressure in the ocean at the depth of 1 km. Moreover, the atmosphere on Venus is 97% carbon dioxide, there is no water even in the form of vapour — there are clouds of sulphuric acid that make surveying the planet surface in visible light impossible as well as blocking sunlight. So, Venus is Earth’s sister having gone through the greenhouse catastrophe that is so often spoken about. Studying Venus with automatic spacecraft will give us the keys to understand the mechanisms of evolution of our planet thus help to evade this fate.
Venusian advantage is the dense atmosphere close to that on Earth in its composition and serving a reliable shield from the key problems Mars has: space raditation and meteorites. Venus is also easier to access being closer with launch windows happening more often. However potentially ‘attractive’ conditions on Venus are located at an altitude of 50-65 km: here the atmosphere is most Earth-like with the levels of temperature, pressure and gas composition.
Sun explorations show that it is heating up now and the temperatures on Venus and on Mars are slowly growing making Mars arguably more attractive viewed from terraforming and colonization perspectives.
— Is it possible to plant terrestrial flora in Martian tropics?
— Mars surface is covered with perchlorate-rich soil which is poisonous for Earth’s flora. Thus, Earth’s plants won’t be able to grow freely on Martian surface without certain soil preparation. Besides, temperature mode, atmospheric composition, radiation background and other parameters are also important and require artificial support in isolated premises.
— Is there life on Mars today, is there something about it in the data we have? Did life exist on Mars or Venus in the past?
— All research conducted on Mars and Venus to find traces of life have given no positive result yet. Maybe this question will be answered by the next stage of the joint Russian-European ExoMars mission due to be launched in 2022. The mission is to land a rover on Mars equipped with a drilling device capable of penetrating into the subsurface layer of the Red Planet, as well as a micro laboratory to search for traces of life.
Venus and Mars are the most explored planets in the Solar system. Several orbital missions and station landings on Venus (the Soviet Venera-13 spacecraft still remains the most successful staying operational for 157 minutes) the scientists managed to receive detailed data on Venusian climate, soil and atmosphere composition. Generally speaking, the Soviet Union compared to the USA has succeeded in Venus exploration so much that the Americans called Venus ‘the Soviet planet’.
As for me and the circumstances that I have just pointed out the ‘scientific’ favorite is the mission to Venus we are developing today. Not long ago while analyzing the photos of Venus captured back by the Soviet expeditions the Russian Academy of Sciences scientists claimed that they discovered moving objects that might even be living. I won’t discuss this article, but as you know ‘wit bought is better than wit taught’ — and it remains to be seen whether these guesses are right.
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